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Electronic color code

Thu, 12 May 2022 23:05:31 -0400

An electronic color code or is used to indicate the values or ratings of electronic components, usually for resistors, but also for capacitors, inductors, diodes and others. A separate code, the 25-pair color code, is used to identify wires in some telecommunications cables. Different codes are used for wire leads on devices such as transformers or in building wiring.

History

Before industry standards were established, each manufacturer used their own unique system for color coding or marking their components.

In the 1920s,[citation needed] the RMA resistor color code was developed by the Radio Manufacturers Association (RMA) as a fixed resistor coloring code marking. In 1930, the first radios with RMA color-coded resistors were built.Over many decades, as the organization name changed (RMA, RTMA, RETMA, EIA)[3] so was the name of the code. Though known most recently as EIA color code, the four name variations are found in books, magazines, catalogs, and other documents over more than 93 years.

In 1952, it was standardized in IEC 62:1952 by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and since 1963 also published as EIA RS-279. Originally only meant to be used for fixed resistors, the color code was extended to also cover capacitors with IEC 62:1968. The code was adopted by many national standards like DIN 40825 (1973), BS 1852 (1974) and IS 8186 (1976). The current international standard defining marking codes for resistors and capacitors is IEC 60062:2016.[5] In addition to the color code, these standards define a letter and digit code named RKM code for resistors and capacitors.

Color bands were used because they were easily and cheaply printed on tiny components. However, there were drawbacks, especially for color blind people. Overheating of a component or dirt accumulation may make it impossible to distinguish brown from red or orange. Advances in printing technology have now made printed numbers more practical on small components. The values of components in surface mount packages are marked with printed alphanumeric codes instead of a color code.

Resistors

Color band system

To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands:

The first significant figure of component value (left side)
The second significant figure (some precision resistors have a third significant figure, and thus five bands).
The decimal multiplier (number of trailing zeroes, or power of 10 multiplier)
If present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no band means 20%)

In the above example, a resistor with bands of red, violet, green, and gold has first digit 2 (red; see table below), second digit 7 (violet), followed by 5 (green) zeroes: 2700000 ohms. Gold signifies that the tolerance is ±5%.

Precision resistors may be marked with a five band system, to include three significant digits, a power of 10 multiplier (number of trailing zeroes, and a tolerance band. An extra-wide first band indicates a wire-wound resistor.

Tight tolerance resistors may have three bands for significant figures rather than two, or an additional band indicating temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR), in units of ppm/K.

All coded components have at least two value bands and a multiplier; other bands are optional.

The standard color code per IEC 60062:2016 is as follows:

Resistors use various E series of preferred numbers for their specific values, which are determined by their tolerance. These values repeat for every decade of magnitude: ... 0.68, 6.8, 68, 680, ... For resistors of 20% tolerance the E6 series, with six values: 10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, then 100, 150, ... is used; each value is approximately the previous value multiplied by 6√10. For 10% tolerance resistors the E12 series, with 12√10 as multiplier, is used; similar schemes up to E192, for 0.5% or tighter tolerance are used. The separation between the values is related to the tolerance so that adjacent values at the extremes of tolerance approximately just overlap; for example, in the E6 series 10 + 20% is 12, while 15 − 20% is also 12.

Zero ohm resistors, marked with a single black band,[10] are lengths of wire wrapped in a resistor-like body which can be mounted on a printed-circuit board (PCB) by automatic component-insertion equipment. They are typically used on PCBs as insulating "bridges" where two tracks would otherwise cross, or as soldered-in jumper wires for setting configurations.

Body-end-dot system

The "body-end-dot" or "body-tip-spot" system was used for cylindrical composition resistors sometimes still found in very old equipment (built before the Second World War); the first band was given by the body color, the second band by the color of one end of the resistor, and the multiplier by a dot or band around the middle of the resistor. The other end of the resistor was in the body color, silver, or gold for 20%, 10%, 5% tolerance (tighter tolerances were not routinely used)

Example:

From top to bottom:

* Green, blue, black, black, brown

560 ohms ±1%

* Red, red, orange, gold

22000 ohms ±5%

* Yellow, violet, brown, gold

470 ohms ±5%

* Blue, grey, black, gold

68 ohms ±5%

The physical size of a resistor is indicative of the power it can dissipate.

There is an important difference between the use of three and of four bands to indicate resistance. The same resistance is encoded by:

Red, red, orange = 22 followed by 3 zeroes = 22000 (excluding default, silver, or gold tolerance)

Red, red, black, red = 220 followed by 2 zeroes = 22000 (excluding brown or other band for tolerance)

Mnemonics

Useful mnemonics have been created to make it easier to remember the numeric order of resistor color bands. The following example includes the tolerance codes gold, silver, and none:

Bad Beer Rots Out Your Guts But Vodka Goes Well – Get Some Now.

Betty Brown Runs Over Your Garden But Violet Gingerly Walks.

Bad Bears Raid Our Yummy Grub But Veto Grey Waffles.

BB ROY from Great Britain has a Very Good Wife.

The colors are sorted with ascending values in the order of the visible light spectrum to make them easy to remember and to reduce the significance of possible read errors due to color shifts and fading over time: red (2), orange (3), yellow (4), green (5), blue (6), violet (7). Black (0) has no energy, brown (1) has a little more, white (9) has everything and grey (8) is like white, but less intense.

Capacitors

Capacitors may be marked with 4 or more colored bands or dots. The colors encode the first and second most significant digits of the value in picofarads, and the third color the decimal multiplier. Additional bands have meanings which may vary from one type to another. Low-tolerance capacitors may begin with the first 3 (rather than 2) digits of the value. It is usually, but not always, possible to work out what scheme is used by the particular colors used. Cylindrical capacitors marked with bands may look like resistors.

Extra bands on ceramic capacitors identify the voltage rating class and temperature coefficient characteristics.[11] A broad black band was applied to some tubular paper capacitors to indicate the end that had the outer electrode; this allowed this end to be connected to chassis ground to provide some shielding against hum and noise pickup.

Polyester film and "gum drop" tantalum electrolytic capacitors may also be color-coded to give the value, working voltage and tolerance.

Postage stamp capacitors and war standard coding

Capacitors of the rectangular "postage stamp" form made for military use during World War II used American War Standard (AWS) or Joint Army-Navy (JAN) coding in six dots stamped on the capacitor. An arrow on the top row of dots pointed to the right, indicating the reading order. From left to right the top dots were: either black, indicating JAN mica, or silver, indicating AWS paper; first significant digit; and second significant digit. The bottom three dots indicated temperature characteristic, tolerance, and decimal multiplier. The characteristic was black for ±1000 ppm/°C, brown for ±500, red for ±200, orange for ±100, yellow for −20 to +100 ppm/°C, and green for 0 to +70 ppm/°C.

A similar six-dot code by EIA had the top row as first, second and third significant digits and the bottom row as voltage rating (in hundreds of volts; no color indicated 500 volts), tolerance, and multiplier. A three-dot EIA code was used for 500 volt 20% tolerance capacitors, and the dots signified first and second significant digits and the multiplier. Such capacitors were common in vacuum tube equipment and in surplus for a generation after the war but are unavailable now.

Inductors

Diodes

The part number for small JEDEC "1N"-coded diodes—in the form "1N4148"—is sometimes encoded as three or four rings in the standard color code, omitting the "1N" prefix. The 1N4148 would then be coded as yellow (4), brown (1), yellow (4), grey (8).

Wire

Transformer

Power transformers used in North American vacuum-tube equipment were often color-coded to identify the leads. Black was the primary connection, red secondary for the B+ (plate voltage), red with a yellow tracer was the center tap for the B+ full-wave rectifier winding, green or brown was the heater voltage for all tubes, yellow was the filament voltage for the rectifier tube (often a different voltage than other tube heaters). Two wires of each color were provided for each circuit, and phasing was not identified by the color code.

Audio transformers for vacuum tube equipment were coded blue for the finishing lead of the primary, red for the B+ lead of the primary, brown for a primary center tap, green for the finishing lead of the secondary, black for grid lead of the secondary, and yellow for a tapped secondary. Each lead had a different color since relative polarity or phase was more important for these transformers. Intermediate-frequency tuned transformers were coded blue and red for the primary and green and black for the secondary.

Other

Wires may be color-coded to identify their function, voltage class, polarity, phase or to identify the circuit in which they are used. The insulation of the wire may be solidly colored, or where more combinations are needed, one or two tracer stripes may be added. Some wiring color codes are set by national regulations, but often a color code is specific to a manufacturer or industry.

Building wiring under the US National Electrical Code and the Canadian Electrical Code is identified by colors to show energized and neutral conductors, grounding conductors and to identify phases. Other color codes are used in the UK and other areas to identify building wiring or flexible cable wiring.

Mains electrical wiring, both in a building and on equipment was once usually red for live, black for neutral, and green for earth, but this was changed as it was a hazard for color-blind people, who might confuse red and green; different countries use different conventions. Red and black are frequently used for positive and negative of battery or other single-voltage DC wiring.

Thermocouple wires and extension cables are identified by color code for the type of thermocouple; interchanging thermocouples with unsuitable extension wires destroys the accuracy of the measurement.

Automotive wiring is color-coded but standards vary by manufacturer; differing SAE and DIN standards exist.

Modern personal computer peripheral cables and connectors are color-coded to simplify connection of speakers, microphones, mice, keyboards and other peripherals, usually according to coloring schemes following recommendations such as PC System Design Guide, PoweredUSB, ATX, etc.

A common convention for wiring systems in industrial buildings is: black jacket – AC less than 1,000 volts, blue jacket – DC or communications, orange jacket – medium voltage 2,300 or 4,160 V, red jacket 13,800 V or higher. Red-jacketed cable is also used for relatively low-voltage fire alarm wiring, but has a much different appearance.

Local area network cables may also have non-standardised jacket colors identifying, for example, process control network vs. office automation networks, or to identify redundant network connections, but these codes vary by organization and facility.

Series and parallel circuits

Fri, 06 May 2022 23:02:49 -0400

Two-terminal components and electrical networks can be connected in series or parallel. The resulting electrical network will have two terminals, and itself can participate in a series or parallel topology. Whether a two-terminal "object" is an electrical component (e.g. a resistor) or an electrical network (e.g. resistors in series) is a matter of perspective. This article will use "component" to refer to a two-terminal "object" that participate in the series/parallel networks.

Components connected in series are connected along a single "electrical path", and each component has the same current through it, equal to the current through the network. The voltage across the network is equal to the sum of the voltages across each component.

Components connected in parallel are connected along multiple paths, and each component has the same voltage across it, equal to the voltage across the network. The current through the network is equal to the sum of the currents through each component.

The two preceding statements are equivalent, except for exchanging the role of voltage and current.

A circuit composed solely of components connected in series is known as a series circuit; likewise, one connected completely in parallel is known as a parallel circuit. Many circuits can be analyzed as a combination of series and parallel circuits, along with other configurations.

In a series circuit, the current that flows through each of the components is the same, and the voltage across the circuit is the sum of the individual voltage drops across each component. In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each of the components is the same, and the total current is the sum of the currents flowing through each component.

Consider a very simple circuit consisting of four light bulbs and a 12-volt automotive battery. If a wire joins the battery to one bulb, to the next bulb, to the next bulb, to the next bulb, then back to the battery in one continuous loop, the bulbs are said to be in series. If each bulb is wired to the battery in a separate loop, the bulbs are said to be in parallel. If the four light bulbs are connected in series, the same current flows through all of them and the voltage drop is 3-volts across each bulb, which may not be sufficient to make them glow. If the light bulbs are connected in parallel, the currents through the light bulbs combine to form the current in the battery, while the voltage drop is 12-volts across each bulb and they all glow.

In a series circuit, every device must function for the circuit to be complete. If one bulb burns out in a series circuit, the entire circuit is broken. In parallel circuits, each light bulb has its own circuit, so all but one light could be burned out, and the last one will still function.

Series circuits

Series circuits are sometimes referred to as current-coupled or daisy chain-coupled. The electric current in a series circuit goes through every component in the circuit. Therefore, all of the components in a series connection carry the same current.

A series circuit has only one path through which its current can flow. Opening or breaking a series circuit at any point causes the entire circuit to "open" or stop operating. For example, if even one of the light bulbs in an older-style string of Christmas tree lights burns out or is removed, the entire string becomes inoperable until the bulb is replaced.

Current

I = I₁=I₂=...=I_n

In a series circuit, the current is the same for all of the elements.

Voltage

V=V₁+V₂+...+V_n=I(R₁+R₂+...+R_n)

In a series circuit, the voltage is the sum of the voltage drops of the individual components (resistance units).

Resistance Units

The total resistance of two or more resistors connected in series is equal to the sum of their individual resistances:

R_total= R_s= R₁+R₂+...+R_n

Here, the subscript s in R_s denotes "series", and R_sdenotes resistance in a series.

Electrical conductance presents a reciprocal quantity to resistance. Total conductance of a series circuits of pure resistances, therefore, can be calculated from the following expression:

1 / G_total = 1 / G₁ + 1 / G₂ + ....+ 1 / G_n

For a special case of two conductances in series, the total conductance is equal to:

G_total = G₁G₂ / G₁ +G₂

Capcitors

See also: Wiki Capacitor § Networks

Figure from by WIKI

Capacitors follow the same law using the reciprocals. The total capacitance of capacitors in series is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of their individual capacitances:

1 / C_total = 1 / C₁ + 1 / C₂ + ....+ 1 / C_n

Equivalently using elastance (the reciprocal of capacitance), the total series elastance equals the sum of each capacitor's elastance.

Switches

Two or more switches in series form a logical AND; the circuit only carries current if all switches are closed. See AND gate.

Cells and Batteries

A battery is a collection of electrochemical cells. If the cells are connected in series, the voltage of the battery will be the sum of the cell voltages. For example, a 12 volt car battery contains six 2-volt cells connected in series. Some vehicles, such as trucks, have two 12 volt batteries in series to feed the 24-volt system.

Parallel circuits

"In Parallel" redirects here. For the 2017 Dhani Harrison album, see In Parallel (album).

If two or more components are connected in parallel, they have the same difference of potential (voltage) across their ends. The potential differences across the components are the same in magnitude, and they also have identical polarities. The same voltage is applied to all circuit components connected in parallel. The total current is the sum of the currents through the individual components, in accordance with Kirchhoff's current law.

Voltage

In a parallel circuit, the voltage is the same for all elements.

V= V₁=V₂=...=V_n

Current

The current in each individual resistor is found by Ohm's law. Factoring out the voltage gives

I_total=I₁+I₂+...+I_n=V(1/R₁+ 1/R₂+...+1/R_n)

Resistance units

To find the total resistance of all components, add the reciprocals of the resistances R_i of each component and take the reciprocal of the sum. Total resistance will always be less than the value of the smallest resistance:

1 / R_total = 1 / R₁ + 1 / R₂ + ....+ 1 / R_n

This sometimes goes by the mnemonic product over sum.

For N equal resistances in parallel, the reciprocal sum expression simplifies to:

1/ R_total= N / R , R_total= R / N

To find the current in a component with resistance R_i , use Ohm's law again:

I_i = V /R_i

The components divide the current according to their reciprocal resistances, so, in the case of two resistors,

I₁ / I₂ = R₂ /R₁

An old term for devices connected in parallel is multiple, such as multiple connections for arc lamps.

Since electrical conductance {\displaystyle G}G is reciprocal to resistance, the expression for total conductance of a parallel circuit of resistors reads:

G_total= G₁+ G₂+...+ G_n

The relations for total conductance and resistance stand in a complementary relationship: the expression for a series connection of resistances is the same as for parallel connection of conductances, and vice versa.

Iuductors

Inductors follow the same law, in that the total inductance of non-coupled inductors in parallel is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of their individual inductances:

1 / L_total = 1 / L₁ + 1 / L₂ + ....+ 1 / L_n

If the inductors are situated in each other's magnetic fields, this approach is invalid due to mutual inductance. If the mutual inductance between two coils in parallel is M, the equivalent inductor is:

1 / L_total = ( L₁ +L₂ - 2M ) / L₁L₂ - M²

If L₁ = L₂ , L_total = (L+M) / 2

The sign of M depends on how the magnetic fields influence each other. For two equal tightly coupled coils the total inductance is close to that of every single coil. If the polarity of one coil is reversed so that M is negative, then the parallel inductance is nearly zero or the combination is almost non-inductive. It is assumed in the "tightly coupled" case M is very nearly equal to L. However, if the inductances are not equal and the coils are tightly coupled there can be near short circuit conditions and high circulating currents for both positive and negative values of M, which can cause problems.

More than three inductors become more complex and the mutual inductance of each inductor on each other inductor and their influence on each other must be considered. For three coils, there are three mutual inductances M₁₂, M₁₃ and M₂₃. This is best handled by matrix methods and summing the terms of the inverse of the L matrix (3×3 in this case).

The pertinent equations are of the form: ( Math fumula )

Capacitors

The total capacitance of capacitors in parallel is equal to the sum of their individual capacitances:

C_total= C₁+ C₂+...+ C_n

The working voltage of a parallel combination of capacitors is always limited by the smallest working voltage of an individual capacitor.

Switches

Two or more switches in parallel form a logical OR; the circuit carries current if at least one switch is closed. See OR gate.

Cells and batteries

If the cells of a battery are connected in parallel, the battery voltage will be the same as the cell voltage, but the current supplied by each cell will be a fraction of the total current. For example, if a battery comprises four identical cells connected in parallel and delivers a current of 1 ampere, the current supplied by each cell will be 0.25 ampere. If the cells are not identical, cells with higher voltages will attempt to charge those with lower ones, potentially damaging them.

Parallel-connected batteries were widely used to power the valve filaments in portable radios. Lithium-ion rechargeable batteries (particularly laptop batteries) are often connected in parallel to increase the ampere-hour rating. Some solar electric systems have batteries in parallel to increase the storage capacity; a close approximation of total amp-hours is the sum of all amp-hours of in-parallel batteries.

Main article: Series and Parallel Resistors

Series and Parallel resistors

Tue, 03 May 2022 22:57:55 -0400

Figure:Series-parallel connection of resistors.by electricalacademia.com

Series Resistors

The total resistance of resistors connected in series is the sum of their individual resistance values.

Parallel Resistors

The total resistance of resistors connected in parallel is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistors.

For example, a 10 ohm resistor connected in parallel with a 5 ohm resistor and a 15 ohm resistor produces 1 / 1/10 + 1/5 + 1/15 ohms of resistance, or 30 / 11 = 2.727 ohms. A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the other. Some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner, requiring more sophisticated circuit analysis. Generally, the Y-Δ transform, or matrix methods can be used to solve such problems.

Main article: Series and parallel circuits

Resitor Ohm's Law

Tue, 26 Apr 2022 22:55:18 -0400

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points. Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance,[1] one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes this relationship:

where I is the current through the conductor, V is the voltage measured across the conductor and R is the resistance of the conductor. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current.[3] If the resistance is not constant, the previous equation cannot be called Ohm's law, but it can still be used as a definition of static/DC resistance.[4] Ohm's law is an empirical relation which accurately describes the conductivity of the vast majority of electrically conductive materials over many orders of magnitude of current. However some materials do not obey Ohm's law; these are called non-ohmic.

The law was named after the German physicist Georg Ohm, who, in a treatise published in 1827, described measurements of applied voltage and current through simple electrical circuits containing various lengths of wire. Ohm explained his experimental results by a slightly more complex equation than the modern form above (see § History below).

In physics, the term Ohm's law is also used to refer to various generalizations of the law; for example the vector form of the law used in electromagnetics and material science:

where J is the current density at a given location in a resistive material, E is the electric field at that location, and σ (sigma) is a material-dependent parameter called the conductivity. This reformulation of Ohm's law is due to Gustav Kirchhoff.

History

In January 1781, before Georg Ohm's work, Henry Cavendish experimented with Leyden jars and glass tubes of varying diameter and length filled with salt solution. He measured the current by noting how strong a shock he felt as he completed the circuit with his body. Cavendish wrote that the "velocity" (current) varied directly as the "degree of electrification" (voltage). He did not communicate his results to other scientists at the time,[6] and his results were unknown until Maxwell published them in 1879.

Francis Ronalds delineated "intensity" (voltage) and "quantity" (current) for the dry pile"a high voltage source"in 1814 using a gold-leaf electrometer. He found for a dry pile that the relationship between the two parameters was not proportional under certain meteorological conditions.

Ohm did his work on resistance in the years 1825 and 1826, and published his results in 1827 as the book Die galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet ("The galvanic circuit investigated mathematically").[10] He drew considerable inspiration from Fourier's work on heat conduction in the theoretical explanation of his work. For experiments, he initially used voltaic piles, but later used a thermocouple as this provided a more stable voltage source in terms of internal resistance and constant voltage. He used a galvanometer to measure current, and knew that the voltage between the thermocouple terminals was proportional to the junction temperature. He then added test wires of varying length, diameter, and material to complete the circuit. He found that his data could be modeled through the equation.

where x was the reading from the galvanometer, l was the length of the test conductor, a depended on the thermocouple junction temperature, and b was a constant of the entire setup. From this, Ohm determined his law of proportionality and published his results.

In modern notation we would write,

where ${\mathcal {E}}$ is the open-circuit emf of the thermocouple, $r$ is the internal resistance of the thermocouple and $R$ is the resistance of the test wire. In terms of the length of the wire this becomes,

where ${\mathcal {R}}$ is the resistance of the test wire per unit length. Thus, Ohm's coefficients are,

Ohm's law was probably the most important of the early quantitative descriptions of the physics of electricity. We consider it almost obvious today. When Ohm first published his work, this was not the case; critics reacted to his treatment of the subject with hostility. They called his work a "web of naked fancies" and the Minister of Education proclaimed that "a professor who preached such heresies was unworthy to teach science."The prevailing scientific philosophy in Germany at the time asserted that experiments need not be performed to develop an understanding of nature because nature is so well ordered, and that scientific truths may be deduced through reasoning alone. Also, Ohm's brother Martin, a mathematician, was battling the German educational system. These factors hindered the acceptance of Ohm's work, and his work did not become widely accepted until the 1840s. However, Ohm received recognition for his contributions to science well before he died.

In the 1850s, Ohm's law was widely known and considered proved. Alternatives such as "Barlow's law", were discredited, in terms of real applications to telegraph system design, as discussed by Samuel F. B. Morse in 1855.

The electron was discovered in 1897 by J. J. Thomson, and it was quickly realized that it is the particle (charge carrier) that carries electric currents in electric circuits. In 1900 the first (classical) model of electrical conduction, the Drude model, was proposed by Paul Drude, which finally gave a scientific explanation for Ohm's law. In this model, a solid conductor consists of a stationary lattice of atoms (ions), with conduction electrons moving randomly in it. A voltage across a conductor causes an electric field, which accelerates the electrons in the direction of the electric field, causing a drift of electrons which is the electric current. However the electrons collide with atoms which causes them to scatter and randomizes their motion, thus converting kinetic energy to heat (thermal energy). Using statistical distributions, it can be shown that the average drift velocity of the electrons, and thus the current, is proportional to the electric field, and thus the voltage, over a wide range of voltages.

The development of quantum mechanics in the 1920s modified this picture somewhat, but in modern theories the average drift velocity of electrons can still be shown to be proportional to the electric field, thus deriving Ohm's law. In 1927 Arnold Sommerfeld applied the quantum Fermi-Dirac distribution of electron energies to the Drude model, resulting in the free electron model. A year later, Felix Bloch showed that electrons move in waves (Bloch electrons) through a solid crystal lattice, so scattering off the lattice atoms as postulated in the Drude model is not a major process; the electrons scatter off impurity atoms and defects in the material. The final successor, the modern quantum band theory of solids, showed that the electrons in a solid cannot take on any energy as assumed in the Drude model but are restricted to energy bands, with gaps between them of energies that electrons are forbidden to have. The size of the band gap is a characteristic of a particular substance which has a great deal to do with its electrical resistivity, explaining why some substances are electrical conductors, some semiconductors, and some insulators.

While the old term for electrical conductance, the mho (the inverse of the resistance unit ohm), is still used, a new name, the siemens, was adopted in 1971, honoring Ernst Werner von Siemens. The siemens is preferred in formal papers.

In the 1920s, it was discovered that the current through a practical resistor actually has statistical fluctuations, which depend on temperature, even when voltage and resistance are exactly constant; this fluctuation, now known as Johnson–Nyquist noise, is due to the discrete nature of charge. This thermal effect implies that measurements of current and voltage that are taken over sufficiently short periods of time will yield ratios of V/I that fluctuate from the value of R implied by the time average or ensemble average of the measured current; Ohm's law remains correct for the average current, in the case of ordinary resistive materials.

Ohm's work long preceded Maxwell's equations and any understanding of frequency-dependent effects in AC circuits. Modern developments in electromagnetic theory and circuit theory do not contradict Ohm's law when they are evaluated within the appropriate limits.

This article is about the law related to electricity. For other uses, see Ohm's acoustic law.

More information : Ohm's Law WIKI

Resistor-Electrical Components

Fri, 22 Apr 2022 21:51:04 -0400

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits.

The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of the resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the component.

Electronic symbols and notation

Main articles: Electronic symboland RKM code

Two typical schematic diagram symbols are as follows:

ANSI-style: (a) resistor, (b) rheostat (variable resistor), and (c) potentiometer

IEC Resistor symbol

The notation to state a resistor's value in a circuit diagram varies.

One common scheme is the RKM code following IEC 60062. Rather than using a decimal separator, this notation uses a letter loosely associated with SI prefixes corresponding with the part's resistance. For example, 8K2 as part marking code, in a circuit diagram or in a bill of materials (BOM) indicates a resistor value of 8.2 kΩ. Additional zeros imply a tighter tolerance, for example 15M0 for three significant digits. When the value can be expressed without the need for a prefix (that is, multiplicator 1), an "R" is used instead of the decimal separator. For example, 1R2 indicates 1.2 Ω, and 18R indicates 18 Ω.

Resistor Theory of Operation : Ohm's Law

The behaviour of an ideal resistor is described by Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage () across a resistor is proportional to the current () passing through it, where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (). For example, if a 300-ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12-volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes flows through that resistor.

The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10⁻³ Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ = 10³ Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 10⁶ Ω) are also in common usage.

The hydraulic analogy compares electric current flowing through circuits to water flowing through pipes. When a pipe (left) is clogged with hair (right), it takes a larger pressure to achieve the same flow of water. Pushing electric current through a large resistance is like pushing water through a pipe clogged with hair: It requires a larger push (voltage) to drive the same flow (electric current).

About Arduino Resources

Tue, 19 Apr 2022 21:48:28 -0400

The Arduino platform benefits from an active user community that makes it easy to get help from fellow experimenters when you run into problems with your Arduino projects. Consider utilizing some of the following resources and more free internet resource. If you need a hand picking up the appropriate board for your next creation or just need help with a project, head over Discord to ask the community.

Reference Materials

Official Arduino Language Reference

Official Arduino Libraries Reference

ShieldList: A Comprehensive List of all Arduino Shields

Tutorials

Official Arduino Tutorials

adafruit Arduino Learning Series

TronixStuff Arduino Tutorial Series

Arduino Support Forums

The Official Arduino Forum

The Arduino Subreddit

The element14 Arduino Group

EEVblog Electronics Forum

Arduino software Download

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Arduino Web Editor

Start coding online and save your sketches in the cloud. The most up-to-date version of the IDE includes all libraries and also supports new Arduino boards.

CODE ONLINE GETTING STARTED

Downloads

Arduino CC Downloads Pages

Arduino IDE 2.0.3

The new major release of the Arduino IDE is faster and even more powerful! In addition to a more modern editor and a more responsive interface it features autocompletion, code navigation, and even a live debugger.

For more details, please refer to the Arduino IDE 2.0 documentation.

Nightly builds with the latest bugfixes are available through the section below.

GitHub Source Code

The Arduino IDE 2.0 is open source and its source code is hosted on GitHub.

DOWNLOAD OPTIONS

Windows	Win 10 and newer, 64 bits
Windows	MSI installer
Windows	ZIP file
Linux	AppImage 64 bits (X86-64)
Linux	ZIP file 64 bits (X86-64)
MacOS	Intel, 10.14: “Mojave” or newer, 64 bits
MacOS	Apple Silicon, 11: “Big Sur” or newer, 64 bits

Nightly Builds

Nightly Builds Download a preview of the incoming release with the most updated features and bugfixes.

Arduino with Chromebook

To program Arduino from a Chromebook, you can use the Arduino Web Editor on Arduino Cloud. The desktop version of the IDE is not available on Chrome OS.

MicroPython With Arduino Boards

To program your boards using MicroPython, visit the MicroPython with Arduino page. There you find download links and additional resources for getting started with MicroPython on your Arduino boards.

Arduino PLC IDE 1.0

Program using IEC 61131-3 languages and mix Arduino sketches through Arduino PLC IDE! Configure easily your pre-mapped resources and get quick no code fieldbus support, dive into your code analysis thanks to the wide set of debugging tools.

For more details, please refer to Arduino PLC IDE documentation.

Windows	Arduino PLC IDE, Win 10 and newer, 64 bits
Windows	Arduino PLC IDE Tools

Legacy IDE (1.8.X)

The open-source Arduino Software (IDE) makes it easy to write code and upload it to the board. This software can be used with any Arduino board.

Refer to the Getting Started page for Installation instructions.

SOURCE CODE

Active development of the Arduino software is hosted by GitHub. See the instructions for building the code. Latest release source code archives are available here. The archives are PGP-signed so they can be verified using this gpg key.

Download Options Link to Arduino CC

Windows	Win 7 and newer
Windows	Zip file
Windows App	Win 8.1 or 10+
Linux	32 bits
Linux	64 bits
Linux ARM	ARM 32 bits
Linux ARM	ARM 64 bits
Mac OS X	10.10 or newer , Release Notes Checksums (sha512)

Arduino Softeware Terms of Service

By downloading the software from this page, you agree to the specified terms.

The Arduino software is provided to you "as is" and we make no express or implied warranties whatsoever with respect to its functionality, operability, or use, including, without limitation, any implied warranties of merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, or infringement. We expressly disclaim any liability whatsoever for any direct, indirect, consequential, incidental or special damages, including, without limitation, lost revenues, lost profits, losses resulting from business interruption or loss of data, regardless of the form of action or legal theory under which the liability may be asserted, even if advised of the possibility or likelihood of such damages.

Arduino Retired Products & Legacy Documentation

Tue, 12 Apr 2022 23:43:56 -0400

Arduino Retired Products & Legacy Documentation fromArduino website. Update time : Jan.1.2023

We value our legacy, so we make sure to never get rid of our older documentation. In this page, you can find information for all our retired boards, shields, kits and other legacy products. To access The Arduino Playground, our legacy community wiki, you can go to playground.arduino.cc. Please note that it is now read-only.

Boards

Arduino 101

Arduino BT (Bluetooth)

Arduino Ethernet Rev3 with PoE

Arduino Ethernet Rev3 without PoE

Arduino Fio

Arduino Gemma

Arduino Industrial 101

Arduino ISP

Arduino Leonardo ETH

Arduino Leonardo ETH 2 with PoE

Arduino M0

Arduino M0 Pro

Arduino Mega ADK Rev3

Arduino Mini 05

Arduino Mini 05 without header

Arduino Board Serial Single Sided

Arduino Board Serial Single Sided v3

Arduino Tian

Arduino Tre

Arduino UNO Rev3 with Long Pins

Arduino Uno WiFi

Arduino USB

Arduino USB 2 Serial Micro

Arduino Yún

Arduino Yún Mini

Arduino Yún with PoE

LilyPad Arduino Main Board

LilyPad Arduino Simple

LilyPad Arduino SimpleSnap

LilyPad Arduino USB

Shields

Arduino Ethernet Shield 2 with PoE

Arduino Ethernet Shield

Arduino GSM Shield

Arduino GSM Shield 2 (Antenna Connector)

Arduino GSM Shield 2 (Integrated Antenna)

Arduino Lucky Shield

Arduino USB Host Shield

Arduino WiFi Shield

Arduino WiFi Shield 101

Arduino Wireless Proto Shield

Arduino Wireless SD Shield

Arduino Xbee Shield

Arduino Yún Shield

Kits

Arduino IoT Prime

Arduino Basic Kit

Arduino Engineering Kit

Arduino On Android Kit

Arduino Proto Extension Kit

Shield - MEGA Proto KIT Rev3

Other

Arduino LCD Screen

Arduino Materia 101 Assembled

Arduino Older Boards

Arduino Robot

Getting Started with Arduino (book)

Retired products - Hardware

USB/Serial Converter

Archived Libraries

Curie Timer One Library

Esplora Library

GSM Library

Robot Library

Bridge Library for Yún devices

Guides to Retired Products

Getting Started with the Arduino 101

Getting Started with the Arduino ADK

Getting Started with the Arduino BT

Getting Started with the Arduino Esplora

Arduino Esplora Examples

Getting Started with the Arduino Ethernet Shield.

Getting Started with the Arduino Fio

Getting Started with the Arduino GSM Shield

Getting Started with the Arduino GSM Shield 2

Getting Started with the Arduino Gemma

Getting Started with the Arduino ISP

Getting Started with the Arduino Industrial 101

Getting Started with the Arduino Leonardo, Leonardo ETH and Micro

Getting Started with the Arduino LilyPad, LilyPad Simple and LilyPad Simple Snap

Getting Started with the LilyPad Arduino USB

Getting Started with the Arduino M0

Getting Started with the Arduino M0 Pro

Advanced features of Arduino M0 Pro

Getting Started with the Arduino Mini

Getting Started with the Arduino Primo

Getting Started with the Arduino Primo Core

Getting Started with the Arduino Pro

Getting Started with the Arduino Pro Mini

Getting Started with the Arduino Tian

Getting Started with the Arduino Uno WiFi

Arduino UNO WiFi FW Change

Arduino UNO WiFi Firmware Updater

Getting Started with the Arduino WiFi Shield

Getting Started with Arduino WiFi Shield 101

Getting Started with the Arduino Wireless SD Shield and Series 1 XBee modules

Arduino Wireless Shield with XBee Series 2 Radios

Getting Started with the Arduino Yún

Getting Started with the Arduino Yún and Yún Mini LininoOS

Getting Started with the Arduino Yún Shield

Getting Started with the TinkerKit Braccio Robot

Getting Started with Intel® Edison

Getting Started with Intel® Galileo Gen2

IoT Prime - Experiment 01

IoT Prime - Experiment 02

IoT Prime - Experiment 03

IoT Prime - Experiment 04

Getting Started with the Arduino Robot

Getting Started with the Arduino TFT Screen

About microcontroller board Arduino

Fri, 08 Apr 2022 23:40:35 -0400

What is Arduino?

Update time: Jan.1.2023

Arduino designs, manufactures, and supports electronic devices and software, allowing people around the world to easily access advanced technologies that interact with the physical world. Our products are straightforward, simple, and powerful, ready to satisfy users’ needs from students to makers and all the way to professional developers.

Arduino Mission & Vision

Arduino’s mission is to enable anyone to enhance their lives through accessible electronics and digital technologies. There was once a barrier between the electronics, design, and programming world and the rest of the world. Arduino has broken down that barrier.

Over the years, our products have been the brains behind thousands of projects, from everyday objects to complex scientific instruments. A worldwide community, comprising students, hobbyists, artists, programmers, and professionals, has gathered around this open-source platform, their contributions adding up to an incredible amount of accessible knowledge.

Our vision is to make Arduino available to everyone, whether you are a student, maker or professional, which is why we now have three segments to our business. These segments work together as an ecosystem with a shared mindset: we started with Maker, and that has evolved into Education and PRO solutions.

Maker

Find creative solutions to everyday challenges

For makers around the world, our goal is to democratize the most advanced technologies and create a new set of opportunities for creative people, whether that’s through connected products, advanced sensors, Cloud & Apps, machine learning, AI, etc.

Arduino empowers creative minds to master technology and intuitively solve everyday problems. Our platform simplifies the use of otherwise complex tools. For example, programming a securely connected IoT device is just a few clicks away with the use of the Arduino Cloud.

Education

Empower the next generations of students to be the disruptors of the future

For middle school, high school, and university educators who want to deliver relevant, fun, and creative STEAM lessons that enable all students to thrive, Arduino Education’s open-source approach and cross-curriculum content are essential tools that develop and empower students as they progress through their STEAM education.

Our classroom programs include kits, bundles, and boards with project-based learning paths for individual and collaborative educational approaches. Teaching remotely? We have kits designed for remote, individual learning, making hands-on STEAM education accessible even when the classroom isn’t.

Find out more about Education

Profession

Enable businesses of any size to exploit the potential of AI and IoT

The PRO line is designed to enable businesses to quickly and securely connect remote sensors to business logic within one simple IoT application development platform, transferring the productivity and creativity that makers enjoy with Arduino into the business world.

We aim to help companies transform their business models with IoT, providing robust, hackable, and understandable IoT hardware and SaaS platforms.

Arduino can support the full development, production, and operation lifecycle, from hardware and firmware to low code, Cloud, and mobile apps.

Find out more about PRO

The Arduino Team

Founders

Massimo Banzi

Co-founder, Chairman & CMO

Massimo Banzi is an interaction designer, educator, open-source hardware pioneer, and TED speaker. His background is in electrical engineering, but he spent most of his early career working as a software architect before spending four years at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea as an Associate Professor. He has taught workshops and has been a guest speaker at institutions all over the world.

Always interested in what's new, Massimo started the first FabLab in Italy, and is also the author of the book “Getting Started with Arduino”.

He currently teaches at USI University and SUPSI in Switzerland, and is a visiting professor at CIID in Copenhagen.

David Cuartielles

Co-founder & Content Lead

David is a university lecturer and leads the Content Unit at Arduino.

He holds an MSc in Telecommunications Engineering and a PhD in Interaction Design, and has lectured at Malmö University in Sweden since 2000.

David has been a visiting scholar at universities in the Americas, Europe, and Asia, has written several books on programming, and is an international speaker on open-source hardware and STEAM education. David has been awarded both for his work at Arduino and his professional career, is an Ashoka Fellow for Spain, and actively supports several SMEs in Spain and the Americas in the field of technology and education.

Tom Igoe

Co-founder

Tom Igoe is the area head for physical computing courses, in which students learn to consider the motivations and actions of the people for whom they're designing as the foundation for physical interaction design. His research interests also include networks, lighting design, the environmental and social impacts of technology development, and monkeys.

He has written four books and a number of articles related to electronics and physical interaction. He has consulted for various museums and interactive design companies as well. He hopes to visit Svalbard someday.

David Mellis

Co-founder

David A. Mellis is a software architect at Autodesk, building software for circuit design. His work seeks to engage new audiences in using electronics for creative and do-it-yourself practices. Previously, David was a postdoc at UC Berkeley with Björn Hartmann. David completed his graduate studies at the MIT Media Lab, getting his PhD in Mitchel Resnick's Lifelong Kindergarten group and his master's in Leah Buechley's High-Low Tech group.

Prior to the Media Lab, David taught at the Copenhagen Institute of Interaction Design (Denmark). He has a master's in interaction design from the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea (Italy).

Management team

More the newest informaton . Please Enter Arduino Pages

Autaba Corp.

Electric and Sensor Control System

1 Microcontroller Developments

2 Electronickits

3 Components

4 Sensors

5 IoT

6 Robotics

7 Tools

Electronic color code

History

Resistors

Body-end-dot system

Example:

Mnemonics

Capacitors

Inductors

Diodes

Wire

Transformer

Other

Series and parallel circuits

Series circuits

Parallel circuits

Series and Parallel resistors

Series Resistors

Parallel Resistors

Resitor Ohm's Law

History

Resistor-Electrical Components

Electronic symbols and notation

Resistor Theory of Operation : Ohm's Law

About Arduino Resources

Reference Materials

Tutorials

Arduino Support Forums

Further Reading

Arduino software Download

Arduino Web Editor

Downloads

DOWNLOAD OPTIONS

Arduino with Chromebook

MicroPython With Arduino Boards

Arduino Softeware Terms of Service

Arduino Retired Products & Legacy Documentation

Boards

Shields

Kits

Other

Archived Libraries

Guides to Retired Products

About microcontroller board Arduino

What is Arduino?

Maker

Education

Profession

The Arduino Team

Management team